The Third Battle of Panipat took place between northern expeditionary force of the Maratha Empire and invading forces of the King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by two Indian allies—the Rohilla Afghans (Najib ad- Dawlah) of the Doab, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh. The battle is considered one of the largest and most eventful fought in the 18th century. It has been said that this battle changed the power equation in India. Maratha was defeated and their rising power was checked.
Sequence of events resulting into Maratha Afghan conflict:
-> Declining Mughal power and rising Maratha power was one of the aspect of political scene during mid 18th century in India. It had come the extent that in 1752 A.D. there had been treaty between Mughal emperor and Peshwa, By which the Mughul emperor gave the Marathas the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi from all over India and, in return, the Marathas were obliged to help the Emperor in times of need. Thus, the Marathas involved themselves directly with the politics at Delhi. By that time, the Mughul nobility had sharply divided itself into conflicting groups. Among them, the one group was that of the Indian Muslims and, the other one, that of the foreign Muslims particularly those of the Turanis. The Marathas was involved in that group-politics as well and supported the group of Indian Muslims. The group of foreign Muslims, therefore, tried to seek foreign help which they readily received from the ruler of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali who had his eyes upon Kashmir, Multan and Punjab. Abdali had attacked India in 1752 A.D. and Mughal emperor (Ahmad Shah) was forced to surrender Multan and Punjab to him. Abdali’s appointed person was ruling over these territory.
In 1754 A.D., Maratha with helped Vazir Gaziuddin in raising Alamgir II to the Mughul throne in place of Ahmad Shah. This displeased the group of foreign nobles, main among them was Nazib-ud-daula (Rohilla Afghan). In 1756 A.D., Vazir Gaziuddin snatched away Multan and Punjab from Muglani Begum (was ruling Multan and Punjab). This enraged Ahmad Shah Abdali, he attacked Punjab and reached Delhi.
He appointed Nazib-ud-daula as Mir Bakshi and assigned Punjab to his son. Maratha Raghunath Rao proceed to Delhi but, before he could reach there Abdali had retired. Raghunath Rao removed Nazib-ud-daula from the post of Mir Bakshi. Maratha attacked punjab also and it was placed under a Maratha noble.
Primary causes which resulted into this battle:
a) Causes of defeat of Maratha:
-> Dattaji, a Martha nobel opened negotiations with Nazib-ud-daula but failed. Abdali was again enraged and attacked Punjab. A battle followed near Delhi in which Dattaji was killed. When the Peshwa heard of the death and defeat of Dattaji, he despatched a Maratha army under the command of Sadashiva Rao Bhau to the North with a view to turn out Abdali from India. But by the time they reached Delhi (1960) Abdali had left.
-> Abdali declared that his aim was not to stay in India but desired to turn out the Marathas of the South and place Emperor Shah Alam on the throne of Delhi. Nazib-ud-daula who also got Suja-ud-daula in his group, supported him.
-> Sadashiva Rao Bhau tried to win over different chiefs and rulers of north India but he largely failed. Thus, Maratha and Abdali was in head on with each other. Which resulted into battle of Panipath, in which Marathas where badly defeated.
b) Weakness of Mughul emperors: He could not check the acts among Nobilities, Had there been a strong emperor all the scenes could have been different.
c) The division of the nobility in contending groups: It was Nazib-ud-daula and Suja-ud-daula was looking from outside support and for which Abdali was a readily available. The ambition of the Marathas to gain influence in the North. The ambition of Abdali to capture Kashmir Multan and Punjab.
d) Outnumbered:
Abdali’s forces outnumbered the forces under the command of Bhauji.
e) Afghans were better equipped:
Abdali’s troops were not only better organised but better equipped. While Abdali’s troops used muskets, the Marathas fought mostly with sword and lances. Abdali’s swivel guns mounted on camel’s back caused havoc. Though Marathas had some of the best French-made guns of the time, their artillery was static and lacked mobility against the fast-moving Afghan forces. The heavy mounted artillery of Afghans proved much better in the battlefield than the light artillery of Marathas. Marathas did not use their guerilla method of warfare in which they were master. Malharrao Holkar had advised it. Ahmad Shah’s superiority in pitched battle could have been negated by using guerilla method.
f) Superiority of Abdali against Bhau as a commander:
Bhau had made many strategic mistakes. Though he was brave and courageous, acted on the spur of the moment. On seeing the demise of his beloved Vishwasrao, Bhausaheb came down from his elephant, climbed on a horse and plunged into the enemy lines, without realizing the consequences. Seeing his empty howda his troops thought that he had fallen and that they were leaderless. This led to
chaos. On the other hand, Ahmad Shah Abdali was probably the best General of his times in Asia and a worthy heir of Nadir Shah in capacity and spirit. Abdali’s experience and maturity were great assets. Abdali’s superior tactics of war and his strategy of action foiled all chances of Maratha success.
g) Indisciplined Maratha army:
Indiscipline prevailed in Maratha army at that time. It was no more like it was during Shivaji time when women were not allowed in army camps. Now, there was large number of women and servants in the Maratha camp who were simply burden to the army. The effective fighting force of the Marathas numbered only 45,000 while the army of Abdali consisted of nearly 60,000 soldiers. The campaigning, marching and discipline of Abdali’s army was direct contrast to that of the Marathas.
h) Scarcity of supplies:
Bhau lost control over Doab and therefore, felt scarcity of supplies. Near famine conditions prevailed in the Maratha camp at Panipat. The road to Delhi was cut off by the Afghan war. There was no food for men and fodder for horses. On the other hand, the Afghans kept their supply line open with the Doab and the Delhi region. Bhau wasted three months by camping before Abdali at Panipat and engaged in battle when, from the last two months, the Maratha army was semi-starved. The Marathas were fighting alone at a place which was 1000 miles away from their capital Pune.
i)Lack of allies:
The Marathas occupied parts of Punjab and Haryana when they occupied Delhi, this alienated the Marathas from the locals (Jats and Punjabis). While Muslim powers of Northern India rallied behind Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Marathas had to fight alone. The over-bearing attitude of the Marathas and their policy of indiscriminate plunder had estranged not only the Muslim powers but also Hindu powers like Jats and Rajputs. Even the Sikhs, the deadly enemies of the Afghans, did not help the Marathas.
j) Diplomatic failure of Bhau:
He was incapable of getting support of important Muslims support from the North.
Consequences of 3rd battle of Panipat:
-> He even lost the support of Suraj Mal, the Jat Raja of Bharatpur who felt disgusted with his behaviour and therefore, left the Maratha-camp. On the one hand, Nazib-ud-daula got Suja-ud-daula, the ruler of Avadh to the side of Abdali by pleading to him in the name of Islam.
-> Mutual jealousies:
Mutual jealousies of the Maratha commanders considerably weakened their side. For e.g. Bhau called Malhar Rao Holkar a dotard past his usefulness and lowered his esteem in the eyes of the army and the public. Thus, the Marathas captains were individualistic in spirit and their military tactics.
-> On the Maratha:
- The immediate loss to the Marathas was considerable as they lost heavily in men and money. An entire generation of capable leaders was cut off at one stroke and it gave a free hand to the unscrupulous Raghunatha Rao, the most infamous character in Maratha history.
- The battle destroyed the prestige of the Marathas and they were no more considered invincible.
- Apart from the territorial losses, the unity of the Maratha Empire was weakened which resulted in the disintegration of the Maratha empire.
- It was a death blow to the Maratha unity.
- The Peshwa lost his dominant position in the Maratha confederacy, becaming merely one of the confederate chiefs and subordinate members like Sindhia, Holkar, Bhosle and Gaikwad became virtually independent.
- It checked the progress of the Marathas towards north India. The Marathas took a long time to reconsolidate their power and the time was utilised by other powers to strengthen themselves. After their defeat in this battle, the Marathas could no longer claim to be the
foremost power in India. They, rather, became one of the powers in India.
- The Marathas now fell from the high pedestal. The India powers, after the battle were convinced that the Maratha friendship was worth nothing. For example, in Malwa, the disposed chieftains and even petty landlords raised their heads and talked of driving Marathas out.
- Of course, Sindhia remained protector of the Mughul emperor for some time but the Marathas failed to strengthen their hold over the North. That is why the British could get the chance of eliminating the French in India and capture power in Bengal also.
-> On Ahmad Shah Abdali:
He never reaped any great advantage besides gathering booty. There was practically a mutiny in Abdali’s camp due to arrears of pay. So Abdali returned to Afghanistan leaving Najib-ud-daulah as his representative in Delhi and started negotiations with the Marathas in the Punjab. In 1763 AD peace was concluded with Peshwa Madhava Rao I who recognised the Punjab as Afghan territory.
-> On the Sikhs:
This battle helped the Sikhs to establish their supremacy in the north-west. The Sikhs lost no time in occupying the Punjab and presented stiff opposition to the Afghans invaders. In 1764 AD they met at Amritsar and struck their first coins, a mark of the establishment of sovereignty of the Sikh community. On the final retreat of the Abdali from the Punjab, the Sikhs reappeared in all their force. Lahore was occupied. Between 1767 and 1770, the Sikhs extended their power from Saharanpur in the east to Attock in
the west, from Multan in the south to Kangra and Jammu in the north and they organized themselves into twelve misls.
-> On Rajputs, Nizam and Haider Ali:
The Rajputs came forward boldly to recover lost ground. The Nizam resumed the offensive again. In the south, Mysore under Haider Ali developed into an aggressive neighbour.
-> On Najib-ud-daulah and Shuja-ud-daulah:
The Battle of Panipat left the Rohilfa chief, Najib-ud-daub, the Abdali’s Indian supporter, as the undisputed master of Delhi during the best nine years. The victory of the Abdali also enhanced prestige of Shuja-ud-daulah of Avadh. Najib and Shuja were rocketed as leaders of the Muslims in north India.
-> On the English:
The triangular contest for supremacy between the Mughals, the Marathas and the English that marks that history of the mid-eighteenth century, Panipat records the failure of the first two contestants and the backdoor was left open for the English. This battle gave the English the much needed opportunity to strengthen and consolidate their authority. If Plassey had sown the seeds of British supremacy in India, Panipat afforded time for their maturing and striking roots.
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