Contribution of Kalhana as a historian.

 

Introduction

·      It is one of the most important earliest Sanskrit works, written in 12^th century which has elements of scientific historiography. It is written in poetic form, in 8 books (tarang).

·       It generally records the heritage of Kashmir, since the geological age, but a major chunk discusses the misrule prevailing in Kashmir, before the Muslim invasion.

Why in Kashmir?

·  Kashmir had distinct geographical features and was kind of excluded from the mainland, hence maintained a separate cultural identity with a strong regionalism. Moreover its proximity to Central Asia and China would have also contributed to it as these civilizations had traditions of history writings.

·     Development of Buddhism: Buddhism which has struck roots in Kashmir has a much stronger tradition of historiography than Hinduism.

·   Disclaimer: During the period, due to feudalism, regional feeling was strong elsewhere as well. Such attempts to write local chronicles (गाथागीत) were initiated in other regions as well, but what differentiates Kalhana is his historical sense.

Motivation and his views on History

·       Kalhana was of the view that ancient history written by the authors of that age lacks authenticity. They just used to write some facts based on eulogy to please their patrons. According to him narration of events was not the true way of writing history. It was just like a chronicle with no validity.

·       He believe the poet(historian) as an exponent of moral maxims and want the people to learn from their mistakes.

·       He was writing during a very turbulent period. Harsha’s reign has ended and it was a period of wars and struggles. By writing he wanted to point that all earthly possessions and pleasures are useless.

Importance

·       His sources vary from literary sources such as Nipravaly by Kshemendra, Parthivavali by Helaraja and based his work on Harishchandra, Brihat Samhita and local ‘rajkathas’. He displays surprising advanced technical expertise for unconventional sources such as epigraphic sources, coins, monumental remains, family records and local traditions.

·       He never shows any ruler in either black or white but gives a detailed and objective analysis. Kalhana was different from other raso writers in the sense that he probably didn't have the patronage of any ruler. That is why his work could rise above the petty nature of his contemporaries.

·   His works were continued by Akbar, Rajtarangini by Jonaraja etc but they are much inferior. He mentions his sources in detail. He mentions the 11 scholars who gave him the family tree of Kashmir rulers. He mentions the legends, myths, folklore etc. wherever he had to rely on it.

Content

·    Political: He describes in detail the misrule that was prevailing in Kashmir. Local feudal elements (Damras) have become very strong and were trying to destabilize the throne.  Hence, he says that king should be strong and must ensure that there is no concentration of wealth even in the villages, lest they challenge the royal authority.

·       Administration: He has severely criticized the bureaucracy, most of whom were Kayastha and alleges that they were behind most of the conspiracies against the King.

·       Society: He also describes the social life, with rich drinking perfumed wines and eating meat, while poor surviving on wild vegetables. It says Harsha introduced a general dress in Kashmir of long coats.

·       Economy:  He has given a striking description of agriculture and water works such as dams to prevent landslide, which were supervised by a minister of Avantivarman. This led to subsequent economic prosperity of Kashmir and it led to withdrawal of Kashmir from the plains politics since the need to move there was lessened.

Limitations

·       In the opening chapters, he comes as a mere presenter of folklore and is not very sure of the dates. This is because the sources that he was referring to were not historical. His work is divided into 8 parts. First 3 cover history of more than 3000 years which mainly rely on Puranas and legends. His real historiography only begins from 4^th part and in 4^th - 6^th he covers the Karkota and Utpal rulers.

·     One of the limitations is his strong feeling of regionalism. He includes all the important monarchs as ruler of Kashmir (eg Maurya).

·       He shows a feeling of favoritism towards Brahmins.

Alberuni's understanding of Indian Sciences

 

·       Al-Biruni was an Iranian scholar and polymath and regarded as one of the greatest scholars of the medieval Islamic era. In 1017 he traveled to South Asia and authored a study of Indian culture for which he has been given the title of "founder of Indology.

Motivation

·       Some scholars have indicated that he had a great sympathy for Indians, as just like his countrymen they have also suffered at the hands of Mahmud Ghazani.

·       But it seems like he was motivated by purely scientific and intellectual curiosity and wanted to know what all factors have determined the thought process of Indians.

·       He was also interested in comparative religion.

·       He sees history as unfolding of God’s divine plan, through prophets, in the other he seems to be adhering to the view that both sciences and recording of history are aimed at finding out truth.

·       His views on Indian History: He warns of the numerous lies and concoctions which are mixed up with almost all historical traditions and records, especially when it comes to analyzing and
reading of Indian texts. He criticizes the Hindus for the lack of interest in history.

Importance

·       Unlike the prevalent Puranic traditions of recording the genealogies or the west Asian tarikh tradition of narrating the political history in a chronological manner, the work is of a very critical nature.

·       It provides information ranging from regional geography, political narratives to customs and traditions and even mathematics and science.

·       He has analyzed not only written sources but also oral sources. His work has elements of scientific historiography and advices historians to be more careful with their sources and critically examine them.

·       Al-Biruni was careful in mentioning the written sources of social and cultural history of India, specifically about the Indian scientific works and their authors.

Content

Political History

·       Al-Biruni’s work on India was not intended to be a political narrative; it nevertheless contains some valuable information.

·       The animosity between the Muslim Turkish invaders and the Indians is for the first time attested in the record of Al-Biruni. He laments the widespread destruction caused due to invasions and the migration of the learned men to further east.

·       He accurately dates the conquest of Somnath by Sultan Mahmud, and also noted its exact location and the legend behind building of the temple.

·       Al-Biruni also records the history of the Hindushahi’s who faced the brunt of Mahmud’s invasion.

·       He also mentions the dynasties of Kashmir, Kalchuris and even mentions Rajendra Chola.

Society

For his keen observations on Indian society and cultural ethos of the time, some scholars have actually written of him as the ‘first anthropologist’.

·       Caste ridden society: He seems to be well informed about the fourfold division of the varna order, and the social position and duties associated with each caste. He also informs that the caste system and the associated segregation of men is one of the principle obstacles for any rapprochement between the Hindus and the Muslims.

·       Closed Society:  He notes that going to far-off places was considered undesirable by Brahmins which was further aggravated by a false sense of superiority.

·       Stagnant Knowledge: He remarks that the knowledge in India was at the lowest ebb and they can’t differentiate between dates and sour grapes.

·       Social Evils: He mentions child marriage, sati, low position of women in general and women in particular.

·       Religious beliefs and practices: Covers all major Hindu texts-Gita, Upanishads, puranans, Vedas and highlighted choices parts.

Science

When Al-Biruni came to India he had knowledge of Indian astronomy, which he had acquired by studying Arabic translations of some Sanskrit texts. He considered the Indians well versed in astronomy and mathematics, but he also mentions that Indians mix up science with poplar religious belief.

Mathematics

·       With regard to Indian system Al-Biruni writes that numerical signs have different shapes
and styles in different regions of India.

·       Al-Biruni quotes that the decimal system, symbol for zero, higher order numbers were all known to the Indians.

·       Al-Biruni also mentions that according to Brahmagupta π=√10 and also gives the value of π given by Aryabhatta.

Astronomy

·       He mentions Varaha Mihira’s Panchasiddhantika (6^th century), Brahmagupta’s Brahma Siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka (7th century); Aryabhatta I’s Dasagitika and works of Aryabhatta II.

·       According to him, Indian astronomers generally divided the zodiac into 27 or 28 lunar stations or nakshatras, and gave the number of stars in each nakshatra along with its distance from the sun.

·       He also mentions that Indian astronomers knew about the real cause behind solar and
lunar eclipses and notes two methods given in Khandakhadyaka for ascertaining the time of an eclipse.

·       Makes passing reference to the precision in the calculation of equinoxes and refers to Brahmasphutasiddhanta regarding the revolution of sun, moon and planet.

Physical Sciences

·       In his account of the Indian views on the origins of the world, he seems to be well aware of the Samkhya philosophy and its exposition of the spirit in relation to matter.

·       Al-Biruni also mentions the different methods of weighing and measuring practised in India at the time.

·       Chemistry:  According to him, Hindus do not give much importance to rasavidya, i.e. alchemy. From the point of view of history of alchemy in India, al-Biruni’s detailed account of three alchemists – Bhanuvasa, Nagarjuna, and Vvadi.

Limitations

·       Written with a faulty reading and understanding of the Sanskrit texts, Al-Biruni at times fails to grasp the nuance of the original in its entirety.

·       His reliance solely on Sanskrit texts as representatives of the books of faith and repository of scientific knowledge in the country, ignores a huge corpus of Buddhist and Jain literature, written in prakrit, pali and other local languages.

·       He also limits his audience only to the upper caste groupings within the Indian society, and hence we are devoid of any real understanding of varna order when seen from the point of view of the lower classes.

Make an assessment of the contribution of Shivaji in different fields of administration and polity.

 Shivajis’ Administration:

Shivaji has been called the ‘father of the Maratha nation.’ Besides being a great conqueror and a diplomat, he was a successful administrator.

In the words of Dr. Ishwari Prasad,

“His system of administration was better than the Mughal administration in several areas.”

A benevolent administrator:

Dr. R.C. Majumdar writes of him, “He was not merely a daring soldier and successful military conqueror but also an enlightened ruler of his people.” Shivaji was readily accessible to his all subjects. He was a popular monarch. He kept a close watch on the administrative affairs of the state. All powers were concentrated on him but he ruled with the advice of his ministers. The common people regarded him with great devotion. They considered him as their greatest benefactor.

General features of Shivaji’s administration:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

1. He employed members of all castes and tribes to maintain balance among them.

2. He assigned separate responsibilities to the ministers and each of them was made responsible for his work to him.

3. He made no office hereditary.

4. In general he did not assign jagirs to his civil and military officers.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

5. He gave special attention towards the administration of the forts.

6. In matters of administration, he gave superior position to his civil officers as compared to military officers.

7. He established Ryotwari system in revenue administration. The state kept direct contact with the farmers.

Shivaji took special care to make his administrative system responsive to the needs of the people. In the words of Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “The institutions which he established were an improvement upon the existing order and were well adapted to the well-being of his subjects.”

Central Administration:

He had a council of ministers (Asht Pradhari) to advise him on the matters of the state but he was not bound by it. He could appoint or dismiss them. This appointment was subject to their efficiency. The Peshwa was the first among ministers. The word Peshwa stands for leader or senior one.

Shivaji’s Asht Pradhan (Council of Eight Ministers):

Excepting the Senapati, all other ministers were Brahmans.

All excepting the Pandit Rao and Nyayadish were expected to command the army whenever needed.

Provincial administration:

Shivaji divided his kingdom into four provinces. Each province was under the head called Mamlatdar or Viceroy. Each province was divided into several districts and villages. The village was an organised institution.

The chief of the village was called Deshpande or Patel. The head used to run the affairs of the village with the help of the Village Panchayat.

Like the centre, there was a committee or council of eight ministers with Sar-i- ‘Karkun’ or the ‘prantpati’ (Head of the province)

Fiscal system or Revenue system:

Important features were:

(1) Land in every village was measured and the produce was roughly assessed.

(2) On the basis of assessment, the cultivators were asked to pay 40 per cent of their produce as land revenue.

(3) The Ryotwari system was introduced in which the revenue was directly collected from the farmers.

(4) Wherever possible, Shivaji abolished the jagirdari system.

(5) The farmers had the option to pay land revenue in cash or kind.

(6) The peasants could pay the revenue in installments.

(7) The accounts of the revenue officers began to be thoroughly checked.

(8) In the event of famine of natural calamity, the state offered loans to the peasants.

(9) Shivaji introduced the collection of two taxes called the Chauth and ‘Sardeshmukhi’.

‘Chauth’ and ‘Sardeshmukhi’:

Historians differ as to the exact nature of these two taxies levied by Shivaji. According to Ranade, ‘Chauth’ was not merely a military contribution without any moral or legal obligation but a payment in lieu of protection against the invasion of a third power and he compares it with Wellesley’s Subsidiary Alliance System. Sardesai holds that it was a tribute exacted from hostile or conquered territories.

J.N. Sarkar is of the opinion that Chauth was only a means of buying off one robber and not a subsidiary system for the maintenance of peace and order against all enemies. Thus ‘Chauth’ was a military contribution paid toward off any attack of the Marhatas. It was, in theory, ¼ of revenues of the district invaded but in practice it was sometimes much more than that. Sardeshmukhi was an additional tax of 10% which Shivaji claimed as the hereditary Sardeshmukhi or overlord of Maharashtra.

Judicial administration:

Judicial administrative system was rather simple, crude and primitive. The highest court was ‘Hazar Majils’ or the court of the king. The day-to-day administration was carried on by the village Panchayats and the village ‘Patel’ decided criminal cases.

Shivaji’s army administration:

Shivaji’s army organisation was very efficient. His army was very patriotic, well trained, efficient and extremely mobile.

Shivaji introduced the following reforms in the army:

1. Regular army:

He maintained a regular army. In the traditional military organisation, the soldiers served army for six months and thereafter, they worked in their fields. Now the soldiers were to serve around the year.

2. Cash payment:

He paid the soldiers in cash.

3. Patriotism:

He inspired the soldiers with patriotism.

4. Merit:

He recruited the soldiers on merit.

5. Branding of horses:

He introduced the system of branding the horses and keeping the identification of the soldiers.

6. Discipline:

He enforced strict discipline.

7. Guerilla warfare:

He trained his soldiers in the guerilla warfare.

The guerilla warfare was very suitable in the geographical location of most territories in Maharashtra. He believed in the surprise attacks on the enemy, killed or looted it and disappeared into the forest.

8. Forts:

He paid particular attention to the maintenance of forts. Old forts were repaired and new forts built. The forts also served as military cantonments. About the sanctity of forts it is said that the “people were taught to regard them as their mother.” There were about 280 forts. The inhabitants of the surrounding villages took protection in these forts.

The families of the deceased soldiers were looked after carefully.

9. Muslim soldiers:

Shivaji had about seven hundred Muslim soldiers.

Divisions in the army:

Army had six divisions namely, cavalry, infantry, camel battalions, elephant battalions, artillery and navy.

1. The cavalry:

The cavalry formed the main part of the army. Its number was 40,000. There were two categories of horsemen:

(i) Bargis:

They were paid from the state exchange.

(ii) Silhadars:

They were casual soldiers and they numbered about 50,000.

Discipline in the army:

Shivaji was very strict in maintaining discipline in the army. To kill or torture ladies and children, to loot the Brahmans, to spoil cultivation etc. were punishable offences even during the course of war. Elaborate rules for the maintenance of discipline were rigorously enforced. No soldier was allowed to take his wife in the battlefield.

Liberal Religious policy:

Shivaji was a cultured and a tolerant Hindu ruler. He proclaimed to be the protector of the Hindus, the Brahmans and the cows. He showed respect to religious texts of all religions. He did not destroy a single mosque. He protected Muslim ladies and children even during the course of war.

He gave financial help to Muslim scholars and saints. He employed Muslims in civil and military departments. When Aurangzeb issued a fresh order reimposing the jizya on all the Hindu population, it was an open challenge as much to Shivaji as to many Rajput chiefs.

Shivaji wrote a strong letter of protest to Aurangzeb. He wrote “God is the Lord of all men and not of the Muhammadans only. Islam and Hinduism are only different pigments used by the Divine Painter to picture the human species.” At the same time Shivaji was never actuated by a hatred of the Muslims. He respected the personal honour of a Muslim.

Patterns of settlement, economy, social organization and religion in India (c. 2000 to 500 B.C.)

1. Republics in north India in the 6th Century B.C.

2. Describe the distinguishing features of important archaeological cultures of the Indian subcontinent datable between c. 2000 B.C. and c. 500 B.C. (60 marks)

2. To what extent archaeological materials are useful in understanding the progress of Neolithic man in India? (30 marks)

3. In the absence of a written script Chalcolithic pottery gives us a fascinating insight into the culture and life styles of the people of those times. Comment critically. (15 marks)

4. Delineate and account for the regional characteristics of the Neolithic period in India. (15 marks)

5. The emergence of Non-Harappan Chalcolithic cultures in Central India and the Deccan mark a change not only in the subsistence pattern of people but an overall transition from pre to proto historic period. Critically analyze. (15 marks)

Indus Valley Civilization

1. Discuss the characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization?    60 marks

2. Causes of decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.          20 marks

3. Similarities between Indus Civilization and Vedic Culture.

4. Write a brief note on Harappan Culture.

5. What do you know about Painted Greyware Culture?       

6. Indicate the specific features of the Indus Civilization and the causes of its decline.

7. Figure out the details about the pastoral communities and their role during early period of Indian History.

8. Throw light on the religious faith of the people of Indus Civilization.

9. Locate the sites of Indus Valley Civilization and discuss its unique features. 

Sources of Early Indian History

 1. Classify the literary sources of understanding early Indian History. 20 marks

2. What kind of social, cultural, economic, political life is depicted in the Dharmashastras of India? 20 marks

3. Ascertain the value of the accounts of foreign travellers in constructing ancient Indian History. 20 marks

4. Throw light on the non-literary sources of early Indian History. 20 marks

5. Classify the Vedic Literature. 20 marks

6. Which are the main sources of ancient indian history? Assess the role of archaeology in reconstructing the cultural history of India. 60 marks                                                                                             

7. Dates are not very attractive things. But without dates , will not history become an impassable distance of facts? Can you analyze how dates and facts are synthesized in ancient Indian History. 20 marks

8. Make a review of the growth of science and technology in ancient technology. 20 marks 

9. “Ancient Indians had no taste for historiography; their scholars cared more for religious, spiritual and philosophical studies. Indian historiography is essentially an Islamic heritage.” Comment upon this statement with special reference to the contemporary writers and their works which help us in the reconstruction of history of the early medieval period of Indian history. (60m)  

10. Assess the pattern of settlement, economy, social organization and religion of India during 2000 to 500 BC from archaeological evidences. (60m) 

11. Discuss the changing approaches to the study of early Indian history. (60m) 

12. "Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of inscriptions and coins." Discuss. (60m) 

13. In what ways are the accounts of the Graeco Romans and the Chinese helpful in reconstructing the social history of India? How far is their information corroborated by other Contemporary sources? (60m) 

14. What light do early inscriptions and literature throw on the status of women in politico socio-economic spheres? (60m) 

15. On the basis of contemporary sources assess the nature of banking and usury in ancient India. (15m) 

16. Evaluate the ownership of land in ancient India on the basis of literary and epigraphic sources. (15m) 

17. “While using the accounts of foreign writers, historians must distinguish between statements based on hearsay and those grounded in perceptive observations.” Elaborate with examples. (15m) 

18. How far can the ancient Indian Sruti literature be used as historical sources? (15m)

19. Critically evaluate the theory and practise of land revenue system in ancient India. (20 Marks) 

20. Art and culture are reflected to a far greater extent than political history in the epigraphic sources. Comment. (15 Marks) 

21. How did early Indian historical tradition, as reflected in Itihasa-Purana, emerge? What are the distinctive features of this genre? (20 Marks) 

22. Do you agree that archaeological evidence often helps in the better understanding literary sources? Comment.  (15 Marks) 

Buddism and Jainism

 Life & Teachings of Mahavira and Buddha. Contemporary society. Early phase of state formation and urbanization

1. What were the causes of the origin of the heterodox sects in the sixth century BC? [20m] 

2. Discuss the social & economic factors for the rise of Buddhism. How far was it influenced by Upnisadic thought? [60m] 

3. Write a short essay on: “The intellectual revolution in the Sixth Century B.C.” [20m] 

4. Trace the rise of Magadhan imperialism up to the times of the Nandas with particular reference to its policy towards the non-monarchical state. Discuss the factors that contributed to its success. [60m]

5. Give an account of the republics in the pre-Maurya period. Discuss the factors which contributed to their decline. [60m]

6. Write a short essay on: “Essence of early Jainism” [20m] 

7. Write a short essay on: “Social and economic conditions of North India during the Pre-Mauryan period (600-325 B.C.).” [20m] 

8. What role did iron play in changing their political and economic life? [60m]      

9. “The Sixth century B.C. was a period of religious and economic unrest in India.” Comment. [60m]    

9. Write what you know of the rise and spread of Buddhism before the first century A.D. [60m]   

10. Trace the development of urbanization from the third millennium B.C.E. to 6th century B.C.E. [60m] 

11. Assess the importance of Jain tenets and their relevance to humanity. [30m]  

13. Buddha’s teachings to a large extent could be helpful in understanding and resolving the problems of today’s society. Analyse critically. [15m] 

14. How far is it correct to say that changes in the post-Vedic economy gave birth to new religious movements in India? [15m]

15. Examine the relationship among economic growth, urbanization and State formation from c. 7th century to 3rd century BCE. [15 Marks]

16. Buddhism and Jainism were social movements under the umbrella of religion. Comment. [15 Marks] 

17. Give an account of gana-sanghas (non-monarchical state systems)? Why did they decline? [15 Marks] 

18. The concept of Shramanic religions, with particular reference to Buddhism, had their roots in Upanisadic ideas. Discuss. [15 Marks] 

19. Will you regard Buddhism and Jainism as product of a society more open minded than ours ? Illustrate your answer citing examples from the preceding and succeeding stages of society in ancient india. (60 marks) 

20. What do you know about the non-monarchical communities of Northern India at the time of Buddha. (20 marks) 

21. Analyze the message of Lord Buddha and the two sects of Mahayaan and Hinayaan. (20 marks)  

22. Is there a relationship between rise of Buddhism and emergence of cities in the Ganga Plain ? Trace the growth of urbanization in its early phase. (20  marks)  

23. Discuss the main teachings of Buddhism and give an account of the growth and spread of Buddhism after Gautama Buddha. (60 marks)